Syntax / Grammar

Syntax

Syntax is a section of the science of language that studies phrases and sentences.

Proposals are formed from words and phrases.

The sentence is one of the basic units of the language and the basic unit of syntax. With the help of the sentence, we express our thoughts and feelings, we address each other with questions, advices, requests, orders.

A sentence is a word or a few words that contain a message, a question or an urge (order, advice, request). The sentence is characterized by intonation and is a separate utterance.

The sentence has a grammatical basis, consisting of the main members (subject and predicate) or one of them:

Началась весна. (= Spring began.)
Зеленеет трава. (= The grass is green.)
Сумерки. (= Twilights)
Вечереет. (= It is getting dark.)

The sentences may be simple and complex. A complex sentence consists of two or more simple sentences. A complex sentence, like a simple one, is a single whole. The sentences that are part of its composition are related to each other in meaning, intonation and lexical means.

Principal parts of the sentence

The main parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate.

The subject is the main part of the sentence, which is related to the predicate and to the the nominative case кто? (= who?) or что? (= what?) :

Установилась хорошая (что?) погода. (= The (what?) weather is good.)
(Кто?) Дети вернулись из школы. (= The (who?) children returned from school.)

A predicate is the main member of a sentence that is related to the subject and is used for questions что делает предмет? (= what the subject is doing?) , что с ним происходит? (= what is happening to it?) , что он такое? (= what is it?) , кто он такой? (= who is he?) , etc.

Листья на деревьях пожелтели. (что сделали?) (= The leaves in the trees turned yellow. (what have leaves done?))
Студенты занимаются в читальном зале. (что делают?) (= Students are studying in the reading room. (What are they doing?))
Москва – столица России. (что такое Москва? что есть Москва?) (= Moscow is the capital of Russia. (What is Moscow?))

Subordinate parts of the sentence

The parts of the sentence that explain the main or other parts of the sentence are called subordinate.

The object is a subordinate part of the sentence, answering questions of oblique cases and denoting the subject.

The attribute is a subordinate part of the sentence that answers questions какой? (= which?) , чей? (= whose?)

The adverbal modifier is a subordinate part of the sentence that expresses a sign of action or other indication. It explains the predicate or other parts of the sentence. The adverbal modifiers answer questions как? (= how?) , каким образом? (= how come?) , где? (= where?) , куда? (= where to?) , откуда? (= from where?) , зачем? (= why? / for what?) , при каком условии? (= under what condition?) , почему? (= why?) , отчего? (= why? / from what cause?) , как долго? (= how long?) and other.

Types of subordinate parts	Questions that are answered by subordinate parts	Examples
Object	questions of oblique cases	Учитель дал (кому?) мне задание. The teacher gave (to whom?) me a task.
Attribute	какой? (= which?) , чей? (= whose?)	На его лице была (какая?) весёлая улыбка. He had a (what?) cheerful smile on his face
Adverbal modifier	как? (= how?) , каким образом? (= how come?) , где? (= where?) , куда? (= where to?) , откуда? (= from where?) , зачем? (= why? / for what?) , при каком условии? (= under what condition?) , почему? (= why?) , отчего? (= why? / from what cause?) , как долго? (= how long?)	(когда?) Сегодня русский язык изучает много людей. (when?) Today the Russian language is studied by many people.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence is a sentence that has one grammatical basis. It can consist of:

Two main parts - subject and predicate:
Кругом лежит снег. (= Snow is everywhere around.)
or of only one subject:
Зима. Кругом много снега. (= It's winter. The snow's around. )
or of only one predicate:
Вечереет. Небо на западе порозовело. (= It's getting dark. The sky has turned pink on the west.)

The subject and the predicate may include dependent words - dependend parts of the sentence.

The parts of the sentence are divided into main and subordinate.

Simple sentence according to the presence or absence of subordinate parts

The sentences are divided into simple and complex. Both simple and complex sentences can be expanded and unextended, that is, they may or may not contain, in addition to the main parts some subordinate parts (definitions, additions, circumstances, etc.):

Он пришёл очень быстро.
He came very quickly. (expanded)
Он пришёл.
He came. (unextended)

Simple sentence according to the presence or absence of neccessary parts of the sentence

By the presence or absence of the necessary parts the simple sentences are divided into complete and incomplete.

Complete simple sentences contain all the parts of the sentence that are necessary for the structure:

Небо на востоке озарялось розовым светом.
The sky in the east was illuminated by a pink light.

Incomplete simple sentences have lack one main or subordinate part that is easily restored in meaning:

Коля пошёл в спортзал, а я – в бассейн.
Kolya went to the gym, and I went to the pool.

(the predicate went is missed)

Types of simple sentences according to the purpose of the saying

For the purpose of the statement - message, question, motivation - simple sentences are divided into narrative, interrogative and motivational.

In narrative sentences, an event or fact is reported:

Один берег реки был высокий и обрывистый.
One side of the river was high and steep.
Другой берег реки был низкий и ровный.
The other side of the river was low and level.

Interrogatory sentences express the question:

Кто сегодня опоздал?
Who is late today?
Где будет проходить выставка?
Where will the exhibition be?
Вы знаете, где находится музей?
Do you know where the museum is?

Various motives for action such as an order, a request, an appeal, a demand, a recommendation, etc. are expressed in the imperative sentences.

Посмотри вокруг.
Look around.
Пойдём в парк.
Let's go to the park.
Ешь побыстрее!
Eat quickly!

Types of simple sentences according to the emotional coloring

Simple sentences can additionally express the emotions and feelings of the speaker. Such sentences are pronounced with the intonation of exclamation. Such sentences are called exclamatory.

Какая кругом красота!
Such a beauty around!
Ребята, послушайте!
Kids, listen!

Sentences without expression of feelings are called non-exclamatory. Such sentences have either narrative or interrogative intonation.

Every simple sentence can be an exclamatory by the purpose of the statement:

narrative exclamatory sentence:
- Как хорошо в лесу!
  How good it is in the forest!
- Как прекрасна весна!
  What a wonderful spring!
interrogative exclamatory sentence:
- Неужели ты этого не знал?!
  Did not you know that?!
imperative exclamatory sentence:
- Пойдём на бассейн!
  Let's go to the pool!

Declarative sentence

Narrative sentences are divided into affirmative and negative, in accordance with the statement or denial of the thought expressed in the sentence.

Погода стояла тихая, тёплая, безветренная.
The weather was quiet, warm, windless. affirmative sentence
Ничего не было слышно из-за громкой музыки.
Nothing was heard because of the loud music. negative sentence

In Russian, negation is expressed with the help of a negative particle не (= not) and a word нет (= there is not) .

If the particle не (= not) is placed before the predicate, then the whole thought, reported in the sentence, is denied; If the particle нет (= there is not) is before any other part of the sentence, then some part of the statement is denied.

Я завтра не приду в университет.
I will not go to university tomorrow.
Нет, я не тебе меня судить.
No, don't you judge me.

Simple sentence according to the presence of principal parts of the sentence

By the presence of main parts, simple sentences are divided into two-part and one-part sentences.

A two-part sentence is a simple sentence with the subject and the predicate as necessary components:

Они громко засмеялись.
They laughed out loud.
Он был очень умён.
He was very clever.
Весело сияет месяц над селом.
The moon is shining brightly over the village.

A one-part sentence sentence is a simple sentence with only one main part (with or without dependent words). Depending on this, these sentences can be nominal (only a subject) and verbal (only a predicate). One-part sentence sentences are:

Indefinitely-personal {/ b} - the main part can be expressed by the verb of the 3. person plural of the present or future tense or the verb of the past tense in plural. Indeterminate-personal sentences are used when the person is unknown:

Меня вызвали к директору.
I was summoned to the director.

За рекой косили.
The mowing was performed behind the river.

Generalized-personal{/ b} - most often found in proverbs, sayings, descriptions; the main part in such sentences is expressed by the verb of the 2nd person singular and plural present and future tense or the verb of imperative mood:

Что посеешь, то и пожнёшь
What goes around comes around.

{B} Impersonal {/ b} - can not be of a person. The predicate is usually expressed by an impersonal verb:

На улице стемнело.
It got dark.

{B} Definitely-personal {/ b} - in the sentences, the main part can be expressed by the verb of the 1st or 2nd person singular or plural, present or future tense, as well as the verb of imperative mood:

Стою и смотрю. (= I stand and look.)

Infinitive sentence, because the main term is infinitive:

Вам уже exать. (= It's time for you to go.)

Спать! (= Sleep!)

Nominal is a sentence in which the main member is correlated with the subject of a two-part sentence and expressed by noun in the singular nominative case. Ночь. (= Night.) , Улица. (= Street.) , Фонарь. (= Street lamp.) , Аптека. (= Pharmacy.)

Complex sentence

Composite sentence consists of two or more simple sentences, related in meaning and/or with the help of connective word. Composite sentences are divided into:

Compound sentences in which simple sentences are equal in meaning and are bound by co-ordinating conjunction и (= and) , а (= but) , но (= but) , да (= yes (=and)) , или (= or) , либо (= or) , однако (= but) , зато (= on the other hand) , as well as by compound co-ordinating conjunction ни... ни... (= neither ... nor) , то... то... (= now...now) , то ли..., то ли... (= whether ... or) , не то..., не то... (= either ... or) , etc.:

Дождь кончился, и взошло солнце.
The rain was over and the sun rose.

То кто-то закричит, то кто-то запоёт.
Once someone screams, once someone sings.

Complex sentences where one simple sentence is subordinate to the other in meaning and is associated with it by means of subordinating conjunctions and connctive words: что (= that) , чтобы (= to) , где (= where) , когда (= when) , куда (= where) , почему (= why) , если (ежели) (= if) , как (= as; like) , пока (= while) , хотя (= although) , поэтому (= that's why) , какой (= which) , который (= which) , чей (= whose ) etc., as well as complex subordinate conjunction: благодаря тому что (= due to the fact that) , ввиду того что (= owing to the fact that) , вследствие того что (= as a result of the fact that) , вместо того чтобы (= instead of) , несмотря на то что (= notwithstanding) , прежде чем (= before) , с тех пор как (= since) etc. The subordinating conjunction and the connective word are always in the subordinate clause:

Он знал, что до конце лекции осталось несколько минут.
He knew that there were a few minutes left until the end of the lecture.

Маша не хотела, чтобы её ждали.
Masha did not want to be waited for.

В окно я увидел, как маленькая синичка села на ветку.
In the window I saw a little blue bun sitting on a branch.

Asyndetic sentenses are the sentences where simple sentences are combined without conjunctions or connecting words. The means of communication is content and intonation:

Машина резко тронулась, мотор заворчал, все откинулись на сиденья.
The car jerked off, the engine began to grumble, everybody leaned back against the seats.

Compound sentences

Complex sentences, in which simple sentences are equal in meaning and are bound together by coordinating conjunctions, are called compound sentences.

In compound sentences, simple sentences are joined by coordinationg conjunctions:

connective:

и (= and) , да (= и) (= yes (=and)) , ни… ни… (= nor... nor...) , тоже (= also,) , также (= as well,) , не только… но и (= not only... but) , как… так и (= as... same ...)

separating:

то… то (= then... then...) , не то… не то… (= not... not) , или (= or) , или… или (= or... or) , либо (= or)

alternative

а (= but) , но (= but) , да (= но) (= yes (=but)) , однако (же) (= however) , зато (= instead) , но зато (= but instead)

Compound sentences

Complex sentences, in which one simple sentence is subordinate to the other and is associated with it by a subordinate conjunction or a connective word, are called compound sentences.

In a complex sentence, one simple sentence is the main one, and the other is the subordinate clause.

Subclause joins the main sentence with the help of subordinate conjunctions or connective words (see above).

Connective words are relative pronouns (which, which, whom, by whom, by whom, etc.) and adverbs (where, from where, etc.), used in the role of subordinate conjunctions.

Types of subordinate clauses as part of the necessary parts of the sentence

Complicated sentences on the meaning of the subordinate clause are divided into three groups: determinative, explanatory and circumstantial.

The subordinate determinative sentences refer to the noun in the main sentence, giving it a characteristic or attribute. The question какой? (= which?) is used for the subordinate determinative sentences from the defined word (noun in the main sentence)

Картина (какая), которую я увидел в дальней комнате, меня ошеломила своим великолепием.
The picture (which), which I saw in the back room, stunned me with its magnificence.

Subordinate explanatory sentences refer to the main sentence to words with the meaning of speech (to speak, to ask, to answer), of thought (to think, to decide, to reflect) and of feelings (to feel, to rejoice, happy, sorry) and they clarify (that is, supplement, explain, disclose) the meaning of these words. Caseifiable questions are used from such words to subordinate explanatory sentences:

Он явился с известием (о чём?), что лошади готовы.
He appeared with the news (about what?) that the horses are ready.

Subadverbal modifiers refer to verbs or words with circumstantial meaning in the main sentence and specify the place, time, cause, purpose of the action, etc.

Subclauses with the meaning of place denote the place of action referred to in the main sentence and answer questions где? (= where?) , куда? (= where to?) , откуда? (= where from?)

Деревья кругом (где?), куда ни глянешь, были все золотые и красные.
Trees are all around (where?), wherever you look, all golden and red.

Subclauses with a time value specify the time of the action described in the main sentence and answer questions когда? (= when?) , с какого времени? (= since when?) , до какого времени? (= to when?)

Когда уже все расселись, в огромном театре потухли сразу все лампочки. (когда потухли?)
When everyone was already seated, all the light died out in the huge theater. (When did they die out?)

Subclauses with the meaning of the condition specify the condition under which the action referred to in the main sentence passes or can pass, and answer the question при каком условии? (= under what condition?)

Хорошо (при каком условии?), когда за окнами шумят деревья.
It's nice (under what condition?), when there is a noise of the threes behind the windows.

Subclauses with the meaning of the reason specify the reason of the action referred to in the main sentence and answer the question по какой причине? (= for what reason?)

Они вернулись (по какой причине?), потому что забыли дома ключ.
They returned (for what reason?), because they forgot the key at home.

Subclauses with the meaning of the goal specify the purpose of the action referred to in the main sentence and answer the question с какой целью? (= for what aim?) , для чего? (= What for?)

Она вернулась (с какой целью? для чего?), чтобы взять зонт.
She returned (for what purpose? for what?), to take an umbrella.

Subclauses with the meaning of the effect clarify the results of the action described in the main sentence and answer the question что из этого следует? (= what follows from this?)

Я вернулся в родной город (что из этого следует?), поэтому скоро снова смогу увидеть дорогие мне с детства лица.
I returned to my hometown (what follows from this?), so I will see the faces dear to me from childhood again.

Subclauses with the meaning of the mode of action clarify the image (nature) of the action mentioned in the main sentence, and answer questions как? (= how?) , каким образом? (= how come?)

Человек этот вёл себя так (как?), как будто никого рядом не было.
This man behaved as if (how?) no one was around.

Subclauses with the meaning of measure and degree specify the measure and degree of action referred to in the main sentence and answer questions в какой мере? (= to what extent?) , в какой степени? (= to what degree?) , до какой степени? (= to what degree?) , сколько? (= how many/much?) , насколько? (= How much?)

Она знала жизнь настолько плохо (насколько?), насколько это возможно в 20 лет.
She knew life so little (how much?) as it's possible when being 20 years old.

Subclauses with the comparison refine the actions on the basis of comparison with a similar object or event and answer questions как что? (= like what?) , как кто? (= like who?) , чем что? (= than what?) , чем кто? (= than who?) , подобно чему? (= similarly to what?) , подобно кому? (= similarly to who?)

С острыми звуками (подобными чему?), будто кто-то бьёт мелкой дробью в барабан, дожди стучит по подоконнику.
With sharp sounds (like what?), as if someone is beating drum-roll, the rain is knocking on the windowsill.

Subclauses with the value of the assignment indicate an action that is opposed to the action in the main sentence and answer question несмотря на что? (= despite what?)

Было уже достаточно тепло (несмотря на что?), несмотря на то, что кругом лежал рыхлый, тяжёлый снег.
It was already warm enough (despite what?), despite the fact that there was a loose, heavy snow all around.

Word order in word collocations

At the neutral order of words in phrases:

the adjective precedes the noun ( интересная выставка (= an interesting exhibition) );

the dependent word follows the main ( в центре города (= at the center of the city) , читает газету (= reading newspaper) );

adverbs as -о, -е, precede the verb ( хорошо танцует (= good dancer) ), and adverbs with the prefix по- and the suffix -ски follow the verb ( пишет по-русски (= writing in Russian) );

the subject group is in front of the predicate group ( Брат читает. (= The brother is reading.) );

the determinant denoting the place or time can be at the beginning of the sentence, followed by the predicate group, followed by the subject group ( В городе есть театр. (= There is a theatre in the city.) );

The dependent case form follows the verb ( пришёл в класс (= came to the class) ).

Word order in the sentence

In the neutral order of words in the sentence:

Preposition of the subject group, postposition of the predicate group:

Сестра пишет. (= The sister is writing.)

Брат читает. (= The brother is reading.)

The determinant at the beginning of the sentence (the preposition of the predicate group, the postposition of the subject group):

Зимой начались каникулы.
In the winter holidays began.

Весной распускаются деревья.
In the spring trees bloom.

Dependence of the order of words in the sentence on the actual division:

Игорь вернулся поздно вечером. (Когда вернулся Игорь?)
Igor came back at night. (When did Igor came back?)

Поздно вечером вернулся Игорь. (Кто вернулся поздно вечером?)
Igor came back at night. (Who came back late at night?)

Direct speech

A direct speech is exactly reproduced someone else's speech, reproduced on behalf of the one who pronounced, thought or wrote it:

Таня помолчали и опять спросила: «Так куда же мы сегодня пойдём?»
Tanya paused and again asked: "So where are we going today?"

The sentence with a direct speech consists of two parts: the speech of someone else and the author's words that accompany a direct speech. These parts are linked together unconditionally, united by intonation and meaning.

The author's words indicate:

who owns a direct speech:

«Ты что тут делаешь?» – спросил другой детский голос.
"What are you doing here?" asked another child's voice.

When the speech was made, under what circumstances:

«Смотри, плачет!» – раздалось за кустами.
"Look, he is crying!" - someone's voice came from behind bushes.

the speech manner of speaking person:

«Ему же вредно волноваться!» – скороговоркой сказала сестра.
"It's harmful for him to worry!" - sister said quickly.

Words of the author can be

before direct speech

Я наклонился к нему и тихо спросил: «А ты знаешь, кто я?»
I leaned close to him and quietly asked: "Do you know who I am?"

after it

«Здравствуй!» – я пожал протянутую мне руку.
"Hello," I shook the hand offered to me.

in the middle of the direct speach

«Какой разговор!» – отвечаю ему. – Я должен это сделать!»
"No doubt!" - I answer him. - I must do it!"

Reported speech

Speech of someone else's can be expressed with a simple sentence. In this case, only the topic of speech or subject of the conversationis indicated. The content of someone else's speech is expressed with the help of conjunctions and connective words ( что (= that) , где (= where) , когда (= when) , сколько (= how many/much) , почему (= why) , etc.):

Врач посмотрел на Андрея и спросил, как он себя чувствует.
The doctor looked at Andrei and asked how he felt.

Я сказал, что Петя сейчас на работе.
I said that Pit is at work now.

Витя объяснил, почему он не пришёл на репетицию.
Vitya explained why he did not come to the rehearsal.